Grievances Of The American Colonists Against Great Britain...

Grievances of the American Colonists against Great Britain For a better part of the eighteenth century, the American colonists expressed vexation and disapproval of the coercive acts, which the British Government perpetrated on the colony through series of legislative acts by the British Parliament. Prior to the acts that the colonists in America termed as atrocious and oppressive, they were willing to cooperate and reaffirm loyalty to the King of England. Some of the legislations and declarations that colonists participated in was the sustenance of British soldiers in the colony, payment of import tariffs and other forms of taxes to support the British central government. These are but a few, the reasons as to why colonists objected to the mode of British rule in America. Another concern was the Rights violations by the English government regarding economic progress and representation. Because of these grievances, British colonists in America stepped up agitation through violation of the tyrannical Acts and petitions through the Continental Congress. The essay explores the grievances that Colonists in America held against the British government, in riposte to My Dear America Cousin letter. In the 1650’s, the British government longed to embellish its authority and establish more centralized control governing its Colonies. Parliament established the Navigation Acts which only allowed British vessels to ferryShow MoreRelatedThe Economic, Military And Civil Grievances And The Declaration Of Independence1099 Words   |  5 PagesThe economic, military and civil grievances were essential in drafting the Declaration of Independence. The Declaration is one of the most admired and eloquent proclamations in American history. The document’s goal was to announce the independence of the original thirteen colonies by listing grievances concerning the tyranny of King George III of Great Britain. These original colonies were the first to come together to form the United States. It was adopted in its final form on July 4, 1776. TheRead MorePurpose Of The Declaration Of Independence762 Words   |  4 Pagestitled the Declaration of Independence. July 4th, 1776 marked a salient day in history for all Americans, when our freedom was finally given to us, and we were emancipated from Britain once and for all. The Declaration of Independence emphasizes why The United States of America separated from Britain through the Preamble, Declaration of Natural Rights, Grievances, and the Attempts to Address Grievances. To begin, the first section of the Declaration of Independence was titled The PreambleRead MoreEssay on The Success of the Declaration of Indepedence656 Words   |  3 Pages On July 4th every year, Americans all across the world celebrate Independence Day, the day the United States declared their independence from Great Britain. The mechanism they used on July 4, 1776 was â€Å"The Unanimous Declaration of the Thirteen United States† written by Thomas Jefferson. The Declaration Of Independence was a success by using various types of support, ethos (ethic), pathos (emotion) and logos (logic). The first paragraph lays the logic (logos) behind people separating from theirRead MoreInstigating the American Revolution Essay examples916 Words   |  4 PagesRevolution, American abolitionist Wendell Phillips once stated, â€Å"Revolutions always begin with the populace, never with the leaders. 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Jefferson’s reasons for his contributions to the Declaration of Independence were similar to those of many other Americans; the freedom and independence from Great Britain. Before any type of paper or document be official, there is always a rough draft to help get one started somewhere. Jefferson made twenty-six changes before he presented his official rough draft to Congress. He wrote theRead MoreWere the Colonists Justified in Declaring Their Independence?785 Words   |  4 PagesColonists sought independence from British government for a multitude of reasons. Tension quickly rose between England and the thirteen colonies due to the unjust taxing without fair representation in Parliament, the colonist’s rights to assemble were taken away by the British, and there were many unreasonable Acts and laws put into place in attempt to have complete control over the colonists as well as intimidate them. For these reasons and the suffering that the colonists endured at the hands ofRead MoreDavid Walker’s Appeal a Logical Extension of the Principals of American Revolution1428 Words   |  6 Pagesthis time that Americans started to reject the i dea of Great Britain ruling from overseas without giving due representation to the local population of the colony. When communities sharing a common attribute come together and struggle for their rights they do so not just for themselves but for every one that falls under them. The American Revolution too started off when America came together and began fighting for the rights of its citizens. British indifference towards the grievances of the coloniesRead MoreCauses of the Revolutionary War DBQ1077 Words   |  5 Pagesï » ¿Ryan Hsin 10/17/14 US History Period 2 Causes of the Revolutionary War DBQ A great things started somewhere. For a powerful, free, and role model country like the United States of America started somewhere. The journey of our storied revolution and transformation to one of the world’s premier powers have its roots derived from Great Britain. Unjust colonial rules implanted by the King of England acted as the catalyst for revolution amongst the colonies. Once a happy family, key events triggered

Double Cross Free Essays

The smoke rising like steam from the open manhole, gave a curtain to a dark figure dressed in black, long cloak floating at the back .His presence scared away the crowding street cats lurking and prowling in the dark alley dustbins. The fall of the dustbin lid echoed through the street like a symbol in an orchestra. We will write a custom essay sample on Double Cross or any similar topic only for you Order Now Cars seldom passed this area of town, notorious for crime. His destination, a small entrance bordered by neon lights which echoed through out the mist. As he neared the door a small spy hole slid open. The man spoke his words, muffled through his black scarf. After several seconds the doors locks slid open and the door followed. The glowing mist sucked into the open door. A man tower approached the light, built as wide as he was tall. Final checks were made on the man and he was allowed to enter. The radio was on. The time read quarter to ten. A man confessing his hard life working in an office for a boss he hates to the number one radio station in the area. These one-to-one chats with the air host keep the lonely people entertained at night. Detective Ventura turned it off and sighed. He sat peering into the dark alley where our mysterious character had disappeared moments before. The car door opened. A small man with mousy brown hair round chubby cheeks entered the car. His appearance mimicked his attitude. It was his first day. An uneasy silence surrounded the car, rain started to fall slowly and steadily onto the windscreen. It got heavier with time and the silence grew. The repetitive motion of the wipers swishing back and forth was causing Malcolm to sweat. Ventura noticed Malcolm’s agitated motion. He decided he had to break the ice. â€Å"So how’d u feel first day out on the job. It’s a hell of a lot different from the training aint it?† Ventura said breaking the silence. â€Å"Oh yeah, It’s really exciting for me†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦what you think our next move is sir?† stuttered Malcolm. â€Å"Well son we gotta sit tight for a while. We don’t want go bustin in there when we aint got no leads† he said proudly feeling wise and experienced. Their conversation was interrupted by a gunshot. The room was small but had many doors. He offered to take his coat, but he refused sternly. A look of suspicion was exchanged between the two unlikely gentlemen, when the moment was torn by a voice so strong and deep that it demanded respect. â€Å"Who the hell is it Mike? Are you gonna show um through or do I have to get off my death bed to meet him.† This voice came from a small silver haired man with definite Italian roots. His skin slightly faded from tan to grey. The man lay upon his bed propped up by a mountain of pillows. How a voice of such power and strength could come from this man was hard to believe. As he entered the room the old man glanced across. Mike announced, â€Å"Mr Leony, the man you requested is here with a proposition for you.† His stern voice was irritating â€Å"Ah great I have been expecting you. I feel that your skills may be of some use. Before I give you any details I want you to answer me a few questions. Firstly what’s your name?† â€Å"My name†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦..Andreas† hesitating slightly. Mr Leony looks him up and down, then smiles, â€Å"Good can I call you Andy?† â€Å"I’d prefer if we used no names during any of our meetings.† He removed his long black coat. The thud as it hit the ground raised eyebrows. â€Å"Mike I thought you checked him?† â€Å"I did boss, he was clean†¦..at least I think he was!† â€Å"That’s another thing you need to improve security around here!† said Andreas, as he pulled from his coat a revolver. Eyes widen. The room is silenced. A shot fired. Mike hit the floor. â€Å"What are you doing!? Stop I beg of you there’s no need for this. Who sent you!?† pleaded Antonio Leony. Andreas was considering whether or not to tell Mr Leony who sent him. He looked at his watch. It read five minutes to ten. Ventura bounced from his seat. The coffee flew onto the windscreen. They both looked at each other and simultaneously opened their doors. Time stood still at six minutes to ten as both officers rushed to the neon glare. They both backed up against the wall, guns at the ready. The gel from Malcolm’s hair was running into his eyes. He became agitated again, â€Å"Sir what shall†¦.† â€Å"Shhhh!† Ventura interrupted. They both stood silent waiting for a sound inside or movement. Something to give them an insight. Andreas spoke. â€Å"I’m very sorry old man† he said reluctantly. â€Å"At least do me the honour of knowing which back stabbing bastard set me up? Who was it?† he said bravely. â€Å"What good is it going to do you?†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦but I suppose it’s not going to make much difference whether or not I tell you. Ok it was John Maverick.† â€Å"What that Bastard!† he was raging like a bull. â€Å"I find it hard to end such a man but, you win some, you lose some.† He spoke respectfully, the gun fired. The second gunshot went off piercing Ventura’s ears. They had to make a move; they burst in. The warm air hit them. They came to the door. It opened with a slight creak. Ventura made sure the surroundings were clear and checked the body for life signs. There were none. The curtains flailed in the wind. Our mysterious character had disappeared. Venture heard the fire escape ladder slide. His eyes met Malcolm’s and they synchronically edged toward the window. Unveiling the curtain they watched as the dark figure entered a black saloon car and drove away leaving the spray from the wet road in its wake. He had escaped. Ventura and Malcolm got back to the station. Their captain shouted to them. They went to his office. The room was small with thin walls. Ventura had often been battered verbally by the captain. There was a name plate, which read Captain John Maverick. Expecting a good telling off, the two officer’s eyes were firmly fixed on the ground. â€Å"Ah hell guys, what happened out there?†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Look more to the point we got an anonymous phone call tipping us off about our mystery man that I have had you boys tail for the last 2 weeks† the captain spoke casually which came as a shock to the officers, Ventura spoke anxiously â€Å"What did it say sir?† â€Å"Well it gave us a meeting point and a time. It’s six tomorrow morning at Swallow Lake. You feeling up to it Ventura?† â€Å"Hell yeah sir!† Ventura pounced. â€Å"And take the rookie with you. This is good experience for him.† Captain said smiling. A bird flew by. Its frozen frame glided across the lake. It dipped slowly out of sight. A moment later it burst into view fluttering its wings. It soared into the sky and began to circle the lake like a vulture would its prey†¦.As Ventura followed the bird he noticed the sky; it was red. He remembered the old saying his grandfather used â€Å"Red sky at night Shepherd’s delight, Red sky in the morning Shepherd’s warning†, he whispered. The moment was broken by a black saloon pulling up. A man dressed in black got of out the car and slammed the door. More birds burst into the sky and began to circle. Ventura saw a tall black man approach the pier. He reached for his binoculars. â€Å"Wait! It can’t be.† His eyes widened as he confirmed his fears. â€Å"Who is it sir? Who is it?† Malcolm inquired. A knock came at the car window. Both heads swivelled. A tall man held a gun pointed at Malcolm. â€Å"Get out the car, and no funny stuff. I got a loaded gun here!† he said having the upper hand. They were taken to a lodge. Inside their fears were confirmed. Their captain had set them up. â€Å"Hi guys†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.well what can I say, Ventura if you had just messed up like you did every other time you would be sitting here right now. You got to close damn it!† he said as if to give them some sort of consolation. The Captain called to the man, â€Å"Andreas have you collected the money?† he said anxiously â€Å"Yes but I’m afraid I can’t let you have it. You see I’m a solo man I work for me and me only† he said smugly. Meanwhile Ventura had slipped his penknife from his pocket and was cutting away at the ropes which bound him and Malcolm to the chair, â€Å"What the hell you talking bout? We had a deal. If you go back. I’ll kill you† he said furiously, before he could reach for his gun Andreas shot him in the chest. The captain fell to the ground. Andreas turned to the two men tied to the chairs back to back. â€Å"Sorry fellas, honestly I was real impressed with you two being able to track me down. That aint an easy job, but you have got to die!† Andreas poured petrol in a circle around the men and doused the walls and floor. The room spun faster, and faster, and faster, but Ventura kept his cool. Time was running out, Andreas lit his cigar, â€Å"It’s been a pleasure gentleman.† He went to drop his match. Ventura rose, Andreas flinched and stumbles back. Ventura reached for his second gun in his sock. Andreas pulls back his coat and grasped his gun. Ventura fired. Andreas fired. Time stopped. The exchange of fire made Malcolm faint. Both men lay motionless on the floor. Ventura lay still as ice. Blood mixed in with the petrol and ran down the cracks in the floor. Malcolm came around and saw the two men lying on the floor beside him. He calls to Ventura, â€Å"Sir!, come on get up. Sir?† he shouted. Ventura lay†¦dead? Malcolm’s attention was turned to a rising Andreas. The man rose, grasping his side where he had been shot. He leant against the door frame, his back to Malcolm. Andreas turned and reaching for his gun aims it at Malcolm. Malcolm closes his eyes and prays to god. Three gun shots are fired, but Malcolm felt nothing. When he finally opens his eyes he’s back in the same room with Andreas lying dead on the floor in front of him. He hears the faint cough of Ventura and turned quickly to find him nursing a shot wound to his stomach and still pointing a smoking gun in Andreas’s direction. Ventura got back to his feet and ventured over to his Captain. he looked down at a man for whom he now felt nothing but sorrow for him. The captain’s eyes, as if mesmerised, gazed at the roof. They drifted on to Ventura’s eyes. Ventura drops and holds the captain by his back. The captain spoke with a groan. â€Å"Ah, hell. Things just didn’t turn out well. I’m sorry Ventura. This wasn’t anything personal. He coughed and he died. Ventura eyes glazed like ice. The moment was broken by the sound of a dozen police cars racing to the scene. The birds broke from their circle and descended. The sky was turned from red to blue by the rising sun. How to cite Double Cross, Papers

Rap Music causes violence against Women Essay Example For Students

Rap Music causes violence against Women Essay Valves Rodriguez, a writer for the Los Angels Times, appeals to her readers emotions in a manipulative way, resulting in a convincing argument about holding the music industry responsible for violence against women. She wrote an article titled Is Music Issuing a Call to Violence? . According to Ms. Rodriguez, misogynistic music in pop culture is considered one of the major culprits in glorifying abuse and violence towards women. She highlights examples such as the sexual assaults that happened in Central Park and her own personal experience when a young man acted aggressive towards her on the subway reciting rap lyrics. Racial stereotypes are brought up to explain why sexism is being shrugged off and not take seriously with her saying l also honestly believe lots of people in the U. S. Still believe black and brown men are somehow innately more barbaric than other men, and so excuse these lyrics as artistic expression of creatures from another universe. She cites other examples and details as well which leads to her to put the blame on the music industry. Many of the examples that she gives are red-herrings that lead her readers o think negatively about popular music without her giving any scientific proof backing her claims. The way she manipulates her audience is through persuasive speech that appeals to their emotions such as fear, pity, sadness, and the use of strong imagery. Alias manipulates her readers in her intro using highly emotional charged words that consist of We are stunned and Horrified which exaggerates enough to make the reader more curious to see what is so horrifying. She also uses character-based appeal to seem more credible to her audience by mentioning an say she wrote for a magazine back in 1993 dealing with violence against women. This helps her emotional appeal seem more factual to her readers by mentioning this along with a quote from her article saying from increasingly common woman-hating pop music lyrics, and from music videos that routinely reduce women to punching bags, stripers and sperm receptacles which would sound less convincing if she didnt give her expertise about the subject beforehand. The use of analogies in the previous quote help perpetrate the feelings of pity for the women affected. Without any substantial proof, Alias argues that the sexual assaults that occurred at Central Park, Freaking and Woodstock, were all linked to pop music which help stimulate fear in her readers without them even knowing if it is true or not. The assumption of pop music relating to the sexual assaults at the 3 events have already been embedded within the minds of the reader which works greatly in her favor to persuade them to put much of the blame on the music industry. She does a masterful Job of using the De-herring fallacy to invoke such emotions, like fear, anxiety, and pity all throughout her article. For example, she goes to extremes to try and relate pop music to human rights abuses across the globe by mentioning how it is illegal for women to go to school in Afghanistan and female population control in India and China. These cases have absolutely nothing to do with sexism in popular music but since she uses them Rap Music causes violence against Women By gladdening the reader which leads him/her to think popular music is causing human rights buses in other countries around the world and to make a connection that isnt there. Another example of this is when she mentions honor killings and how women in certain countries are beaten for being alone in public, which does not have anything remotely to do with music influencing violence against women. Alias Valves Rodriguez doesnt let up on manipulating her readers emotions throughout her article. In fact, her article is filled mostly with emotional charge rhetoric without any type of statistical or scientific proof of the music industry being responsible for the lenience against women. .u17a66b337dbd9da8b4a6912cfc372a4d , .u17a66b337dbd9da8b4a6912cfc372a4d .postImageUrl , .u17a66b337dbd9da8b4a6912cfc372a4d .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u17a66b337dbd9da8b4a6912cfc372a4d , .u17a66b337dbd9da8b4a6912cfc372a4d:hover , .u17a66b337dbd9da8b4a6912cfc372a4d:visited , .u17a66b337dbd9da8b4a6912cfc372a4d:active { border:0!important; } .u17a66b337dbd9da8b4a6912cfc372a4d .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u17a66b337dbd9da8b4a6912cfc372a4d { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u17a66b337dbd9da8b4a6912cfc372a4d:active , .u17a66b337dbd9da8b4a6912cfc372a4d:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u17a66b337dbd9da8b4a6912cfc372a4d .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u17a66b337dbd9da8b4a6912cfc372a4d .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u17a66b337dbd9da8b4a6912cfc372a4d .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u17a66b337dbd9da8b4a6912cfc372a4d .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u17a66b337dbd9da8b4a6912cfc372a4d:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u17a66b337dbd9da8b4a6912cfc372a4d .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u17a66b337dbd9da8b4a6912cfc372a4d .u17a66b337dbd9da8b4a6912cfc372a4d-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u17a66b337dbd9da8b4a6912cfc372a4d:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Music out of Africa EssayThere isnt even a reference to other authors who talked about the same subject matter to boost her credibility. What she did was blame something, use general examples of violence against women that would garner pity then make a connection between the two using persuasive speech patterns and emotional charged language to make her readers believe the music industry was the blame for violence against women. Even going as far to compare sexism in music to the Holocaust. I might add, she did a brilliant Job.

Two Lives of Charlemagne and our understanding of medieval kingship Essay Example

Two Lives of Charlemagne and our understanding of medieval kingship Essay Charlemagne, translated into English as Charles the Great, was the King of the Franks, who expanded his empire to as further south as Italy. We learn from the two biographies that Charlemagne was instrumental in the spread of culture and arts to all corners of his kingdom. By closely associating himself with the Papacy, he helped spread the Christian message to much of Europe. As a result of his contributions in various fields, his reign was properly called the Carolingian Renaissance. The reader will be able to get a summation of his lifetime achievements as well as a sense of plebeian life in medieval Europe by reading through the two biographies in discussion. The book Two Lives of Charlemagne contains two different biographies of Charlemagne, who ruled a large swathe of western Europe during the 8th and 9th century AD. The first version is titled ‘Life of Charles’ (original name Vita Caroli) and is written by Einhard. The second version is titled ‘Of Charlemagne’ (original name De Carolo Magno) and is thought to be authored by Notker the Stammerer, who is referred to in related publications as Monk of Saint Gall. Both these works were written in Latin and were translated to English and other European languages only in recent centuries. While these two biographies of Charlemagne are classics of medieval literature, they differ in their points of view and focus. In the case of Einhard, he was a prominent member of the Royal court and hence was privy to the personal and official lives of the King. Indeed, his closeness to the King was such that he was able to recollect the entire account of the King’s life du ring his twilight years, when he retired from his duties and was staying in a monastery. By the time he undertook this project, the King had already passed away, which goes on to show how well the author’s memory and observation had served him during the writing process. The main focus of Einhard’s work was the official life of Charlemagne, which entailed the wars he participated in, the key political decision that he took, the civil society projects he implemented, etc. The coverage of King’s family and personal life is kept to a minimum, as is the convention of the time. As for the literary qualities of the work, Einhard’s style is reminiscent of Suetonius who wrote during the peak of the Roman Empire. We will write a custom essay sample on Two Lives of Charlemagne and our understanding of medieval kingship specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Two Lives of Charlemagne and our understanding of medieval kingship specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Two Lives of Charlemagne and our understanding of medieval kingship specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer The alternate biography written by Notker the Stammerer (or Monk of Saint Gall) comes across as less academic and more light-hearted. Here, the author takes several literary liberties and seems to sacrifice historical accuracy in order to achieve aesthetic effect. The language is florid and the picture painted of the King larger than life. Of the two biographies, this is certainly the more hyperbolic (if not also sycophantic). Notker the Stammerer’s book is certainly the more humorous. In a display of self-depreciating humour, the author refers to himself as the stammering, toothless old man as a way of distinguishing from other Notkers in the King’s court. Notker also focuses on the personality attributes of the King, such as his generosity, acuity of mind, etc. The King’s prudent decision making, the set of principles he follows, etc were also touched upon. He also brings out the darker sides of the King, such as his tendency to be spiteful, his intolerance for dissent, and the brutality of some of his punishments. Indeed, reading through ‘Of Charlemagne’ one can’t escape being in the world of magic realism. If novelists such as Gabriel Garcia Marquez and Salman Rushdie were said to pioneer this new genre in literary fiction, then it is fair to say that Notker’s work is one of its earliest expressions in the non-fiction form (irrespective of factual inaccuracies and exaggerations in the book). Notker’s work is directed to the plebeian lot, as can be learned from the style of prose employed, the areas in which emphasis is laid, etc. In contrast, one gets the impression that Einhard’s work was directed to an elite audience such as fellow historians, courtiers and other intellectuals of the age. For example, as translator Lewis Thorpe notes in his introduction to the book, â€Å"in his introduction Einhard states his aims: they are to write the public history of Charlemagne and to describe the Emperor’s life and his day-to-day habits, omitting nothing which is relevant and yet remaining as succinct as possible†¦.Einhard himself says: ‘I am very conscious of the fact that no one can describe these events more accurately than I, for I was present when they took place and, as they say, I saw them with my own eyes. What is more, I cannot be absolutely sure that these happenings will in fact ever be described by anyone else’.† We should keep in mind though that despite this authorial declaration, there are obvious biases and inaccuracies. Einhard’s summing up of his work as one â€Å"which perpetuates the memory of the greatest and most distinguished of men† does give away the lack of objectivity and balance in what is to follow. In the case of Notker, there is not even a pretense of bringing veracity to the work, as the author himself claims to have never visited the King or his Kingdom. Hence, most of the content is conjured from hearsay accounts and the author’s own imagination. But despite these constraints, the fertility of Notker’s imagination comes through in passages like this: â€Å"I saw the King of the Franks, in full regalia, in the monastery of Saint Gall, Two gold-petalled flowers stuck out from his thighs. The first of these rose up so high that it was as tall as the King himself; the second, growing gradually upwards, adorned the top of his trunk with great glor y and protected him as he walked.† The anecdotal approach to biography that was adopted by Notker gives the reader a comprehensive view of the lifestyles and social customs of medieval Europe. From Notker’s work we understand several things about 8th century life. These include the centrality of the Church to everyday affairs, the congregation and singing that took place in its premises, the flaws in the bureaucratic structure of the court, the stigma associated with red-haired people, the fact that people lived on houses built on stilts, etc. Notker’s anecdotes endeavor to show the king in good light. Here we see how the wise king manages to catch conspiring bishops, how he rounds up unbelievers such as pagans, etc. But since Notker is seldom critical of the king’s actions throughout the work, it is difficult to place such anecdotes in historical and political context. We also understand from these biographies, that Charlemagne, despite being illiterate, was a patron of the written arts. Indeed, prior to his reign, there is virtually no body of Germanic Literature to speak of. It would not be an exaggeration to say that Charlemagne kick-started the tradition of written literature as we understand it today. Prior to that the mode of dissemination of information was primarily oral and dependent on human memory. He also encouraged the development of Western culture by promoting music, dance and theater (however rudimentary this art form might have been during medieval times). The two biographies cover different facets of the King’s life and hence compliment each other. It would be futile to debate which of the two books is superior, for they are of different kinds and not given to easy comparison. But they both remain vital texts in understanding one of the most influential Kings during the early medieval Europe. Even discounting for the authors’ hyperbole, it is a fact that Charlemagne played an important role in shaping historical currents of the time; and these two biographies give us a glimpse of the social, religious and political atmosphere under which Charlemagne’s ruled his domain. Work Cited: Two Lives of Charlemagne by Einhard and Notker the Stammerer, translated by Lewis Thorpe, published in 1969 by Penguin Classics.

Major Rivers That Flow North

Major Rivers That Flow North A common misconception about rivers is that they all flow south. Perhaps some people think that all rivers flow toward the equator (in the Northern Hemisphere) or that rivers like to flow down toward the bottom of north-oriented maps. Whatever the source of this misunderstanding, the truth is that rivers, like all other objects on earth, flow downhill due to gravity. No matter where a river is located, it will take the path of least resistance and flow downhill as rapidly as possible. Sometimes that path is south, but it is just as likely to be north, east, west, or some other direction in between. Rivers That Flow North There are countless examples of rivers flowing northward. Some of the most famous are the worlds longest river, the Nile; Russias Ob, Lena, and Yenisey Rivers; the Red River in the United States and Canada; and Floridas St. Johns River. In fact, rivers that flow north can be found all around the world: Athabasca River, Canada, 765 milesRiver Bann, Northern Ireland, 80 milesBighorn River, United States, 185 milesCauca River, Colombia, 600 milesDeschutes River, United States, 252 milesEssequibo River, Guyana, 630 milesFox River, United States, 202 milesGenesee River, United States, 157 milesLena River, Russia, 2735 milesMagdalena River, Colombia, 949 milesMojave River, United States, 110 milesNile, Northeastern Africa, 4258 milesOb River, Russia, 2268 milesRed River, United States and Canada, 318 milesRichelieu River, Canada, 77 milesSt. Johns River, United States, 310 milesWillamette River, United States, 187 milesYenisey River, Russia, 2136 miles The Nile Image Source/Getty Images   The most famous river that flows north is also the longest river in the world: the Nile, which passes through 11 different countries in northeastern Africa. The rivers principal tributaries are the White Nile and the Blue Nile. The former is the stretch of river that begins at Lake No in South Sudan, while the latter is the stretch of river that begins at Lake Tana in Ethiopia. These two tributaries meet in Sudan, near the capital city of Khartoum, and then flow north through Egypt to the Mediterranean Sea. Since ancient times, the Nile has provided sustenance and support to the people who live along its banks. Herodotus, an ancient Greek historian, referred to Egypt as a gift of the [Nile], and there is no doubt that the great civilization would not have been able to prosper without it. The river not only provided fertile farmland, but also facilitated trade and migration, allowing people to travel more easily through an otherwise harsh environment. Lena River Of Russias mighty rivers- including the Ob, the Lena, and the Amur- the Lena is one of the longest, covering over 2,700 miles from the Baikal Mountains to the Arctic Sea. The river stretches through Siberia, a sparsely populated region known for its harsh climate. During the Soviet era, millions of people- including many political dissidents- were sent to prisons and labor camps in Siberia. Even before Soviet rule, the region was a place of exile. Some historians believe the revolutionary Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov, after being exiled to Siberia, took the name Lenin after the Lena River. The rivers floodplain is known for its snow forests and tundra, habitats that are home to numerous birds, including swans, geese, and sandpipers. Meanwhile, the freshwater of the river itself is home to species of fish such as salmon and sturgeon. St. Johns River The St. Johns River is the longest river in Florida, running up the eastern coast of the state from St. Johns Marsh to the Atlantic Ocean. Along the way, the river drops only 30 feet in elevation, which is why it flows so slowly and tranquilly. The river feeds into Lake George, the second largest lake in Florida. The earliest people to live along the river were likely the hunter-gatherers known as Paleo-Indians, who inhabited the Florida Peninsula over 10,000 years ago. Later, the area was home to Native tribes including the Timucua and the Seminole. French and Spanish settlers arrived in the 16th century, and it was Spanish missionaries who later established a mission at the mouth of the river. The mission was named San Juan del Puerto (St. John of the Harbor), giving the river its name.

How to Calculate Gross Tonnage of a Ship

How to Calculate Gross Tonnage of a Ship The term gross tonnage refers to the internal volume of a water-going vessel, and is normally used as a means for categorizing commercial vessels, especially those used for shipping. This volume measured includes all areas of the ship, from keel to funnel and from bow to stern. In modern usage, the measurement deducts the crew spaces and other parts of the ship that cannot hold cargo. Since 1969, gross tonnage has been the principal means by which a  commercial ship is defined. The gross tonnage measurement has a number of legal and administrative uses. It is used to determine regulations, safety rules, registration fees, and port charges for the vessel.   Calculating Gross Tonnage Calculating the gross tonnage of a ship is a somewhat complicated procedure, due to the fact that most ships have an asymmetrical shape that makes calculating volume difficult. There are many ways to make this calculation, depending on the level of precision required and the agency requiring the measurement. Different formulas are used depending on the shape of the vessel, and even the types of waters on which the ship sails. A simplified set of gross tonnage formulas is set forth by the U.S. Coast Guard Marine Safety Center, which are based on three measurements: Length (L), breadth (D), and depth (D). Under this system, the means of estimating gross tonnage is as follows:   For a boat with a simple sailing hull, gross tonnage (GT) (.5 * L * B * D) / 100For a sailing boat with keel, GT   (.375 * L * B * D) / 100For freighters with angled or cylindrical hulls, GT   (.67 * L * B * D) / 100For ships with square barge-shaped hulls, GT   (.84 * L * B * D) / 100 The  International Convention on Tonnage Measurement of Ships  sets forth another, more precise formula for calculating gross tonnage of a vessel, which says GT   K  *  V. Here, K .2 .02 * log10(V), and V interior volume of a vessel in cubic meters (m3). History of Gross Tonnage as a Measurement Standard Since most commercial ships were originally involved with the transport of goods, otherwise known as cartage,  ships at first were rated and valued on the maximum amount of cargo that could be stuffed into every nook inside a ship. On long sailing voyages, after selling their loads of cookware, tools, machinery and other products, private traders often bought bundles of lumber, spices, cloth, and decorative goods to sell upon return to home port. Every space was stuffed full to maximize profit on both legs of the voyage, and thus each boats value depended on just how much open space was available in the vessel. One of the few exempt spaces in these early calculations of a ships volume was the bilge area, where ballast was held. In early shops, no cargo could be stored here without damage since in these wooden ships the bilges were wet. Ballast stones were used on sailing ships that were leaving with a light load and returning with a heavy cargo. This might be the case when transporting a finished metal such as copper to a port where raw copper ore was loaded for the trip back to England for refining. As the lighter load was unloaded and the heavier load brought aboard, the bilge stones were removed to compensate for the extra weight. Today, piles of these foreign stones, roughly the size of bowling balls, can be found underwater near historic ports all over the world. Eventually, with the availability of mechanical pumps,  water as ballast  became the norm,  since it was much more efficient to simply pump water in and out of the bilge to adjust the ships weight rather than use stones or other forms of weight.   Ã‚   The term  tonnage originally  came into usage as a means for referring to the physical space occupied by 100 cubic feet of ballast  water, an amount of water that was the equivalent of about 2.8 tons. This can be confusing since a ton is usually thought of as a measurement of weight, not volume. In the context of maritime shipping, however, the term tonnage refers to the volume of space available to hold cargo.

El Derecho Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 1

El Derecho - Essay Example The meaning gets twisted depending on the usage. The same is true for El Derecho. In Spanish, as an adverb, the term when translated to English means straight, upright, or directly. Or if used in a sentence, derechos could mean a straight path, as in â€Å"The children walked straightly to the room† But as a noun, the term is no longer used to describe a direction, but rather it refers to the â€Å"right† of a person. Erichsen, Gerald, a Spanish Language Guide (n.d.), explains that the word, when used as a noun would mean another thing and not specific to direction, but more on the rights of a person such as morals, customs, principles, or according to law. The word can also come in a plural form such as â€Å"derechos†, or derechas. So if one would refer to human rights, it is correct to call it â€Å"derechos humanos† for human rights’. When â€Å"derecha† is used, Erichsen said it connotes political affinity, such as opposite of the â€Å"left† political party, or ‘right wing’. Vernor Munoz Villalobos, UN Special Rapporteur on the right to education (2010) used the term â€Å"derecho humano† on her paper to describe a human right to have an education.(UN General Assembly, New York, 2010) . The word has a clearer meaning when used as an adjective because it is specific such as right, opposite of left, straight or upward or in brief, it gives a specific direction, like â€Å"linea derecha†, that means straight line. But further to vocabulary usage the term becomes important in storm predictions and a criterion for severe wind gusts. It is a word coined by the NOAA-NWS-N CEP Storm Prediction Center that describes â€Å"derecho† as a long-lived wind storm that is associated with a band of rapidly moving showers or thunderstorms. This could be related to my above description of the word because of the straight damage directed in one direction. Thus the Storm Prediction Center calls it a ‘a

Comparison of the constraining factors of local employment Essay

Comparison of the constraining factors of local employment law(national law) between USA and UK - Essay Example UK, like the other economies in the world, has also suffered an economic decline because of the economic crisis, much more due to its exposure in the financial sector. (CIA world Factbook). Because of this, the country was pressed into a recession in the middle of 2008. Labor has been affected because unemployment rate stepped up to 7.9% in 2010 as against 7.6 %in 2009. As shown in table below, the year 2011 has the highest unemployment rate in UK since 2003. Fig. 1. Unemployment rate in UK Source: CIA World Factbook, cited in Index Mundi Political environment Workers in UK are protected by the employment law. UK implements a national minimum wage amount of ?6.08 per hour to workers above 21, while ?4.98 is paid to workers with ages 18-20. Wage rate is much lower to 16-17 that is ?3.68S and for apprentice rate is ?2.60.how below are the entitlement of workers under this law. Working hours in UK should not exceed 48 hours, but there are instances that exempt certain class of workers f rom this. Doctors, domestic servants, police and army personnel and those engaged in emergency work are exempted in48 hours rule. All workers are entitled to holiday pay of 5.6 weeks paid annual leave, sick leave, of 5.5 times, rest breaks and overtime pay. These privileges are stipulated in an employment contract that has a term expiry. Sunday is a work day in UK (direct.gov.) Immigration rules. All foreign workers eager to work in UK must obtain a working permit. To qualify, applicant must qualify in the points based system for immigration for work based categories. Investors, entrepreneurs and exceptionally talented person, called as high-value migrants should pass the point system, and they are welcome to UK without the need for job offers. Other qualifications to work in UK are being a skilled worker, temporary worker, domestic worker, or representative of an overseas firm, broadcasting firm or a newspaper organization (UK Border Agency) Demographics Population of UK as of 2011 is 62,678,362. Age structure of working group is divided into 15-64 age bracket with male having 20,979,000 and female 20,500,000. With a labor force of 31.45 million part of this belong to women labor (CIA World Factbook, 2011). The constraint for employment is found to be the gender gap of pay that becomes barriers to women working in occupations traditionally done by men. According to Facts Fawcett society, the gender pay gap is estimated at 15.5% that could be worth L15 to L23 billion. The study of this society showed that 64% of lowest paid workers are women, and many of them are doing part-time work which is paid lower than the hourly rate work. 2. United States Economy The United States has a market oriented economy wherein businesses, organizations and individuals are allowed to make their own decisions while the federal government buys goods and services in the marketplace. US enjoy flexibility in management as compared to other countries and they can expand capital plant, develop new products and lay off surplus workers. Economic The economic crisis is one of the major constraints in local employment in the US labor market because as shown in the chart below, the unemployment rate has continued to rise up to 9.7% in 2010. Source: Bureau of Labor & Statistics.

Look at the opening of Nicolas Hytner Essay Example for Free

Look at the opening of Nicolas Hytner Essay The music gets faster as he finds his way through the trees and bushes, Then he comes close to the area where the girls are though he does not it is them the music changes to a drum beat with Parris footsteps being able to be heard. The camera changes back to the girls with Abigail walking up to Tituba and then Abigail whispers in Abigails ear and Tituba looks scared and shocked as she say no. Abigail then turns around to the pot runs to it and picks up the chicken by its feet and hits its head of a rock breaking its neck the Abigail drinks the blood of the chicken. Then Abigail takes her clothes off, all the girls are screaming then one of the girls sees Parris coming towards them so they all run away except Betty who says that she cannot move. The camera angles through all of this were very fast and furious. Then everything starts to slow down with a picture of Parris on his own looking at the cauldron he lifts up the large spoon inside the pot and drops as if he was scared of it, when he see the chicken as well he gets annoyed though he is a bit scared. The next scene shows Betty in her bed, with a suspicion of witchcraft floating about the place. Only Tituba and Abigail are in the room with Betty there have about eight minutes of filming yet we hear no words spoken. There is obvious tension between Tituba and Abigail over what has happened. More tension is shown when Parris questions Abigail about the incident in the forest. Now music is played again with Abigail saying that they danced but Parris suspects witch craft though Abigail is saying that no spirits have been conjured. The next scene is of Elizabeth and John Proctor who are showing a lot of tension. This tension is raised because John Proctor had an affair with there former servant, and guess who that servant was Abigail Williams. The scene starts of quite pleasant really with John Proctor and his sons working, the music is quite cheerful, the camera angles are quite far of. John Proctor and his go inside with his sons going to bed and him going to have his dinner. Elizabeth gives it to him without speaking but when they do speak it is about how there marriage is falling apart. Then the final scene of tension is in Church with the whole village there when a song is sung the girls go over to Bettys room then Abigail speaks to Betty saying she has told her father everything that happened in the woods. Then like lightning Betty wakes up with her saying I bet you never told him that you drank a charm Abby, a charm to kill Goody Proctor. Then the music gets very loud this is emphasising how important this scene really is. The others girls get quite scared and start to walk away so Abigail threatens them that she would kill anyone who tells on her doings. The camera is only on Abigail, but then Betty jumps up shouting she wants her mom and tries to fly to her out of the window but the girls hold her back and everyone in the church rubs out to them. This causes a lot of tension between all the girls and makes witch craft a better conclusion to what has been happening. In conclusion to Nicolas Hytners film of the play The Crucible was directed extremely well making them beginning of the film already better to the book the film sets the scene better and I believe that it also creates more tension. Also with the plot being so old it was sometimes easier to understand the words better with them being said correctly and with also being able to see what is going on. Nicolas Hytner has used cinematic features to the best they could be in this film there fore making the filming better for all viewers. Matthew Brooke English Coursework 20th Century Drama Show preview only The above preview is unformatted text This student written piece of work is one of many that can be found in our  GCSE Arthur Miller  section.

Third World Technology Use Essay -- Mexico Internet Web Mexican Essays

Third World Technology Use In recent years, information has been a hot topic. What is information and what purpose does it serve? Is information a commodity or a necessity? The insurrection of this interest is partly, if not entirely, a product of the increasing popularity of the Internet , the information superhighway and of Information technology. Deedee Halleck points out in her article, "Zapatistas On-Line" , how in the past two years, the indigenous people of the Mexican state of Chiapas have clearly answered many of these questions. It is ironic that the Internet has been used at a very powerful potential by people whom we would never even picture in the same room as a computer. The Zapatistas have used information as a high-tech weapon, proving that words are the best weapon. Their discussion and dissemination of information on the net has helped to publicize the Zapatistas' issues in alternative media outlets, and to mobilize caravans which have brought medical and food aid to Chiapas(Cleaver 1995). Mo st amazing is the pressure that these powerless peasants have been able to put on the Mexican government. Perhaps some background on the Zapatistas may be helpful here. On New Years Day, 1994, peasant rebels took over six towns, including San Cristobal de las Casas, in the southern Mexican state of Chiapas and declared war. Chiapas is one of the poorest states in Mexico, suffering from job declines in coffee and oil production, and with a large ethnic population of Mayan Indians. The rebels call themselves the Ejercito Zapatista de Liberacion Nacional (EZLN). The Zapatistas are a group of rebels which includes both men and women whose purpose is to fight for their rights, particularly for work, land, housing, food, h... ...lity Debate" Chiapas95. Online. U of Texas. Internet. 21 March 1995. Cleaver, Harry M. "The Chiapas Uprising and the Future of Class Struggle in the New World Order" U of Texas at Austin. Internet. 22 March 1995. hmcleave@mundo.eco.utexas.edu Cleaver, Harry M. "Propaganda: White Washing the Mexican Crisis" Chiapas-1. Online. U of Texas at AUstin. Internet. 18 September 1995 Halleck, Deedee. "Zapatistas On-Line" Report on Culture, NACLA Report on the Americas. Sept/ Oct 1994. Watson, R. et al. "Rebels use Internet" Newsweek. Feb 27, 1995 Wood, Darin. "Netwars. Chiapas: The Revolution will not be Televised (but it will be on-line)" Online. Internet. June 1995. Available WWW: http://www.oneworld.org/index _ oc/wood.html Young, Elliot. "Netwars? or Cyberspace and Ungovernability" Chiapas-1. Online. Colegio de la Frontera. Internet. 20 March 1995.

Planned Organizational Change Essay

Abstract Planned organizational change can be defined in many different ways, and characterized on many different levels. The common denominator listed after reviewing two related Internet articles, indicates that change cannot take place for â€Å"change’s sake†, but must be implemented to accomplish a specific goal or task. Another common statement states that change must also be accepted and embraced before the desired outcome is achieved. Planned Organizational Change Planned organizational change can be defined in many different ways, and characterized on many different levels. The common denominator listed after reviewing two related Internet articles, indicates that change cannot take place for â€Å"change’s sake†, but must be implemented to accomplish a specific goal or task. Another common statement states that change must also be accepted and embraced before the desired outcome is achieved. The first Internet article reviewed was titled â€Å"Planned Organizational Change as Cultural Revolution† (Izumi and Taylor. n.d.). This article was particularly interesting because of the broad statement provided indicating that organizational schemes often fail because of poor reception by those involved. The article states: Organizational schemes â€Å"gang aft a-gley† during the implementation stage because the corporate culture does not change enough to allow the new ideas, procedures, and structures to take hold. There may not be the â€Å"cultural buy-in† necessary to sustain the current change effort. If planned change is to be successful, it must include, as an integral and critical part of the change process, the seeds of the new values, beliefs, and attitudes the organization is trying to grow. Unfortunately, change programs are often set up to fail because the change methods only perpetuate the old way of doing things. This statement rings particularly true for this author. Over the past 20  years in business I have witnessed many organizational changes that have failed miserably. Businesses seem to want a change, for different reasons, but do not know how to properly implement these changes. Improper implementation of a sound plan, not enough organizational commitment, and organizational politics, as indicated in the article, seem to provide some of the most common reasons for failure related to organizational change. Businesses will sometimes have a valid plan to change an organization, but neglect the final stages of implementation. This lack of follow-up invalidates the entire effort. Politics also play a significant role in most organizational change failures. Many businesses have allowed small unofficial organizations to form within organizations; this creates internal â€Å"kingdoms† which prove fatal to organizational change. A strong belief in the importance of a proper structure, as told by the article, often causes change factors to focus on the organization instead or processes. The effects of this type of change produce a structural change instead of a process change that allows the same processes to function under new management. The article goes as far as mentioning on model, used specifically in the case of large mergers, how many resources can be combined with little analysis of the operating environment. The thinking is, the combination of skills, thoughts and ideas will combine to form an organization that operates in a drastically different manner that initially imagined. This idea sounds valid, but a combination of organizational direction from management combined with the evolution of processes and organization would seem to provide the most effective solution. Business Process Reengineering (BPR) is one of the most interesting ideas retrieved from the first Internet article. The BPR is described as a natural outgrowth of the Internal Process approach to organizational effectiveness. This model concentrates on targeting internal processes for change. When these processes are analyzed for inefficiencies there is little consideration given to strategy or organizational structure. When internal processes are changed to increase efficiency, the old systems should be replaced with new systems rather than using the old systems to create new  processes. As old systems are purged, the effects on the organization increase exponentially. The â€Å"domino effect† seen by replacing old processes often surprises businesses as to the effectiveness of this model. The second article reviewed was titled: Basic Context for Organizational Change, this article parallels the previous article reviewed by this author. This article written by Carter McNamara, PhD provides two interesting points: (1) Change should not be done for the sake of change, and (2) There is typically strong resistance to change; people are afraid of the unknown. This author has witnessed several organization changes that could easily been implemented simply â€Å"for change sake†. The Internet article helps in the realization of the necessity for organizational-wide changes to truly create situations that effect positive change. Many times businesses will implement organizational changes in only one or two departments, when the change truly effects the every department or division in a small way. Organizational-wide change, along with change acceptance will go a long way toward creating a favorable atmosphere to change. Typically there are strong resistances to organizational change. People are afraid of the unknown. Many people like the way things are, are comfortable, and don’t understand the need for change. Many people view any organizational change as â€Å"bad†, and neglect to give proposed changes an opportunity to succeed. This type of behavior is difficult to remedy, but a well-structured, properly organized change can implement change much easier that an ill conceived plan. In conclusion, this author has realized the importance of implementing and following through with planned changes as an integral part of successful organizational change. This author has also realized that change for â€Å"change sake† is a dangerous proposition and organizational changes should always consider the entire company before attempting local changes. A final lesson teaches the importance of recognizing people’s inherent resistance to change and the need to address human resistance as an important step in any organizational change effort. The items reviewed in both internet articles discussed effective ways to implement and recognized planned change, and  should be invaluable in future business endeavors. Reference Izumi, H., Taylor, D., (n.d.). Planned organizational change as cultural evolution. Empire State College Resource List. Para. 2. Retrieved April 15, 2003 from the World Wide Web:http://www.esc.edu/ESConline/across_esc/forumjournal.nsf/ 3cc42a422514347a8525671d0049f395/1f36661906ca98d9852567b00

Hazards to food safety Essay

College of Hospitality Management FOOD SAFETY & SANITATION – HFOODS Lesson 2: HAZARDS TO Food Safety General Symptoms of Foodborne Illness – Headache- Abdominal Pain – Nausea- Diarrhea – Vomiting- Fatigue – Dehydration- Fever When a living, disease-causing microorganism is eaten along with a food, it can cause a foodborne infection. After ingestion, the organism burrows into the lining of the victim’s digestive tract and begins to grow in number. This can lead to the common symptoms of FBI like diarrhea. A common type of foodborne infection is salmonellosis. The disease is caused by Salmonella bacteria that are frequently found in poultry and eggs. CLASSIFICATION OF FOODBORNE ILLNESS 1. Infection Caused by eating food that contains living disease causing microorganism. Ex. Bacteria, virus, parasites / grows inside the body and stomach FBI: Salmonella bacteria that are frequently found in poultry and eggs. 2. Intoxication Caused by eating foods that contains harmful chemical or toxin produced chemical waste or toxin. If the food containing the toxin is eaten, the toxin causes an illness. Ex. Food Poisoning, common examples of food intoxication are Clostridium botulinum and Staphylococcus aureus. Intoxication may also occur when an e person consumes food that contains man-made chemicals such as cleaning agents or pesticides. 3. Toxin-mediated infection Caused by eating food that contains harmful microorganisms that will produce a toxin once inside the human body. (as in the case of an infection) A  toxin-mediated infection is different from intoxication because the toxin is produced inside the body. An example of an organism that causes this type of illness is Clostridium Perfingens. On set time Is the number of hours between the time a person eats contaminated food and when they first show symptoms of the disease. Individual onsets vary depending on factors such as age, health status, body weight and the amount of contaminant ingested with the food. FOODBORNE HAZARDS Refers to a biological, chemical or physical hazard that can cause illness or injury when consumed along with the food. Biological Hazards Include bacteria, viruses, parasites and fungi. These organisms are very small and can only be seen with the aid of a microscope. Bacteria are single-celled microorganisms that require food, moisture and warmth to multiply. Chemical Hazards Are toxic substances that may occur naturally or may be added during the processing of food. Ex. Include agricultural chemicals (pesticides, fertilizers, antibiotics), cleaning compounds, heavy metals (lead mercury), food additives, and food allergens. Chemicals and other non-food items should never be placed near food items. Physical Hazards Are hard or soft foreign objects in food that can cause illness and injury. They include items such as fragments of glass, metal, unfrilled toothpicks, jewelry, adhesive bandages and human hair. These hazards result from accidental contamination and poor handling practices at many points. BACTERIA Are one of the most important biological foodborne hazards for any food establishment. Bacteria are reported in more cases of FBI than any hazards. All bacteria exist in a vegetative state. Vegetative cells grow, reproduce,  and produce waste just like other living organism. Some bacteria have the ability to form spore. Spores help bacteria survive when their environment is too hot, cold, dry, acidic or when there is not enough food. Spores are not able to grow or reproduce. CLASSIFICATIONS OF BACTERIA Spoilage Bacteria Degrade (break down) foods so that they look, taste and smell bad. They reduce the quality of food to unacceptable levels. Pathogenic Bacteria Are disease-causing microorganisms that can make people ill if they or their toxins are consumed with food. Bacterial Growth – the reproduction of bacteria and an increase in the number of organisms. Binary Fusion – a process which bacteria reproduce when one bacterial cell divides to form new cells. SIX CONDITIONS BACTERIA NEED TO MULTIPLY (F-A-T-T-O-M) 1. Food – High in protein and Carbohydrates 2. Acid – Mildly acid environment of pH of 4.6 – 7.0 3. Temperature – between 41oF (5oC) and 135 oF (57oc) 4. Time – four hours 5. Oxygen – depending on the type of bacteria (with Oxygen or without 0 or both) 6. Moisture – Water activity greater than 0.85 FOUR PHASES OF BACTERIAL GROWTH (Lag – Log – Stationary – Decline) 1. Lag Phase – in which the bacteria exhibit little or no growth. The bacteria adjust to their surroundings during this phase. The lag phase last only a few hours at room temperature. 2. Log Phase – bacteria growth is very rapid during this phase with bacteria doubling in numbers every few minutes. Keeping bacteria from reaching the log phase of growth is critical for food safety 3. Stationary Phase – the number of new bacteria being produced equals the number of organisms that are dying off during this phase. The bacteria have made up much of the space, nutrients and moisture in the food by this phase. 4. Decline Phase – in here bacteria die off rapidly because they lack nutrients and are poisoned by their own toxic waste. SIX CONDITIONS BACTERIA 1. Source of FOOD Most bacteria prefer foods that are high in protein or carbohydrates like meats, poultry, seafood’s, dairy products and cooked rice, beans and potatoes.(Microbes eat the same food we do) 2. ACIDITY – the pH symbol is used to designate the activity of alkalinity of food. You measure pH on a scale that ranges from 0 to 14. Most foods are acidic and have a pH less than 7.0. Very acid foods (pH below 4.6), like lemons, limes and tomatoes, will not normally support the growth of disease-causing bacteria. Pickling fruits and vegetables preserve the food by adding acids such as vinegar. This lowers the pH of the food in order to slow down the rate of bacterial growth. A pH above 7.0 indicates the food is alkaline. Examples of alkaline foods are olives, egg whites, or soda crackers. Most bacteria prefer a neutral environment (pH of 7.0) but are capable of growing in foods that have a pH in the range of 4.6 to 9.0. Since most foods have pH of less than 7.0, we have identified the range where harmful bacteria grow; from 4.6 to 7.0. Many foods offered for sale in food establishment have a pH in this range. 3. TEMPERATURE – commonly measured in degree Fahrenheit denoted as oF), degrees Celsius (denoted as oC), or both. Psychrophilic Bacteria – grow with a temperature range of 32 oF (0oC) to 70 oF (21oC). They can survive at refrigerated and room temperature. Mesophilic Bacteria – (Middle Range) grow at temperatures between 70oC (21oC) & 110oF (43oC) with most rapid growth at human body temperature (98.6 OF, 37oC). Thermophilic Bacteria – grow best at temperatures above 110oF (43oC). All Thermophilic bacteria are spoilage organism Temperature Danger Zone Most disease causing bacteria can grow within a temperature range 41oF (5oC) to 139oF (60oC). Time and Temperature are the most critical factors affecting the growth of bacteria in foods. â€Å"Keep it hot, keep it cold or don’t keep it!† (Hot 135oF – Cold 41oF) Temperature Abuse – is the term applied to foods that have not been heated to safe temperature or kept at the proper temperature. This could result in a foodborne illness. 4. Time – under ideal conditions, bacterial cells can double in number every 15 to 30 minutes. Clostridium Perfringens bacteria can double every 10 minutes. For most bacteria, a single cell can generate over one million cells in just five hours. Proper storage and handling of foods helps to prevent bacteria from multiplying. Bacteria need about four (4) hours to grow to high enough numbers to cause illness. â€Å"In danger Zone† 5. Oxygen – also differ in their requirements for oxygen. Aerobic Bacteria – must have oxygen in order to grow Anaerobic Bacteria – cannot survive when oxygen is present because it is toxic to them. Usually grow well in Vacuum packaged foods or canned goods) Facultative Anaerobic – can grow with or without free oxygen but have a preference. -Controlling oxygen conditions may not be an effective way to prevent foodborne illness. 6. Moisture – is an important factor in bacterial growth. Drying is the oldest and the best method to preserve food. Many foods are preserved by lowering their water activity to 0.85 below. Drying foods or adding salt and sugar reduces the amount of water. (frozen foods) Water Activity (Aw) Is a measure of the amount of water that is not bound to the food and is, therefore available for bacterial growth. Aw such as dairy products, poultry & eggs, meats, pasta, steamed rice etc. Below 0.85 Aw such as Dry noodles, dry rice, flour jam & jellies etc. POTENTIALLY HAZARDOUS FOODS (PHF) Some types of foods have the ability to support the rapid and progressive growth of infectious and toxin-producing microorganism Usually: high in protein or carbohydrates / have a pH above 4.6 / have a water activity above 8.5. Common examples of PHF: Red meats Poultry Raw Shell Eggs Fish & Shellfish Dairy Products Others: Vegetables, Cooked rice or potatoes, refried beans & fruits such as cut cantaloupe. Must not be held at Temperature Danger Zone within 41oF (5oC) to 135oF (57oC) for 4 hours or more. Ready to Eat Foods – foods are items that are edible without washing, cooking, or additional preparation by the consumer or by the food establishment. These foods can become contaminated if not handles properly. Examples of ready to eat foods that can be eaten immediately: Delicatessen items such as cheeses and luncheon meats Fruits and vegetables Salad items Hotdogs Hard-boiled eggs Foodborne Illness Caused by Bacteria Classified as Sporeforeming – enable a cell to survive environmental stress such as cooking, freezing, drying & high salt. Non-Sporeforeming – easily destroyed by proper cooking Spores are not harmful if ingested, except in a baby’s digestive system. If a spore turns into a vegetative cell, the vegetative cell can grow in the food and cause illness if eaten. Sporeforeming bacteria found in foods grown in soil like: Vegetables / Spices / Animal Products. BRIEF PROFILE OF COMMON PATHOGENIC BACTERIA CAUSATIVE AGENT TYPE OF ILLNESS SYMPTOMS ONSET COMMON FOODS PREVENTION BACILLUS CEREUS-Sporeforming bacterium that can survive with or without oxygen. Bacterial intoxication or toxin mediated infection Diarrhea type: abdominal cramps (8-16 hrs) Vomiting type:vomiting, diarrhea, abdominal cramps(30 min.-6hrs.) Diarrhea type: meats, milk, vegetable Vomiting type:rice, starchy foods, grains, cereals Properly heat, cool, and reheat foods CLOSTRIDIUM PERFRINGENS-is a nearly anaerobic.(must have very little oxygen) Bacterial toxin-mediated infection Intense sbdominal pains and severe diarrhea, (8-22 hrs.) Spices, gravy, improperly cooled foods(especially mets and gravy dishes) Properly cook, cool, and reheat foods CLOSTRIDIUM BOTULINUM-Is an anaerobic(must not have oxygen) Produces NEUROTOXIN-Which is one of the most deadliest biological toxins known to man. Bacterial intoxication  Dizziness, double vision, difficulty in breathing and swallowing, headache (12-36 hrs.) Improperly canned foods, vacuum packed refrigerated foods;cooked foods in anaerobic mass. Properly heatprocess anaerobically packed foods; Do not use home canned foods. CAMPYLOBACTER JEJUNI- is a major cause of foodborne infection.It requires a very strict amount of air for growth.As microaerophile,it can tolerate 3-6% oxygen for growth Bacterial infection Watery, bloody diarrhea (2-5 days) Raw chicken, raw milk, raw meat Properly handle and cook foods; avoid cross contamination SHIGA TOXIN-PRODUCING ESCHERICHIA COLI- Anaerobic bacteria found in the intestines of warm blooded animals, especially cows. Bacterial infection or toxin mediated infection. Bloody diarrhea followed by kidney failure and haemolytic uremic syndrome(HUS) in severe cases,(12-72 hrs.) Undercooked hamburger, raw milk, unpasteurized apple cider, lettuce Practice good food sanitation, handwashing; properly handle and cook food LISTERIA MONOCYTOGENES- is a facultative anaerobic(can grow with or without oxygen) This microbe has the ability to survive under many conditions such as high-salt foods and can grow at refrigerated temperatures (below 41F;5C) Bacterial Infection Healthy adult: flu like symptoms At risk population: septicaemia, meningitis, encephalitis, birth defects (1day-3 weeks) Raw milk, dairy items, raw meats, refrigerated ready-to-eat foods, processed read-to-eat meats such as hot dogs, raw vegetables and seafood Properly store and cook foods; avoid cross contamination; rotate processed refrigerated foods using FIFO to ensure timely use. SALMONELLA SPP.- Facultative anaerobic, found in the intestinal tract of humans and warm blooded animals. Bacterial infection Nausea, fever, vomiting, abdominal cramps, diarrhea (6-48 hrs.) Raw meats, raw poultry, eggs, milk, dairy products Properly cook foods; avoid cross contamination  SHIGELLA SPP.- Facultative anaerobic, found in the intestines and feces of humans and warm blooded animals,The bacterium produces a toxin that reverses the absorption of water bach into the body. Bacterial Infection Bacillary dysentery, diarrhea, fever, abdominal cramps, dehydration, (1-7 days) Foods that are prepared with human contact: salads, raw vegetables, milk, dairy products, raw poultry, non-potable water, ready to eat meat Wash  hands and practice good personal hygiene; properly cook foods STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS- Facultative anaerobic bacteria that produces a heat stable toxin as it grows on foods. Grow well when alone. Bacterial intoxication Nausea, vomiting, abdominal cramps, headaches (2-6hrs.) Foods that are prepared with human contact, cooked or processed foods Wash hands and practice good personal hygiene. Cooking WILL NOT inactivate the toxin. VIBRIO SPP.- Vibrio cholera, parahaemolyticus, vulnificus†¦ all these three are very resistant to salt and are common in seafood Bacterial infection Headache, fever, chills, diarrhea,vomiting, severe electrolyte loss, gastroenteritis, (2-48 hrs) Raw or improperly cooked fish and shellfish Practice good sanitation; properly cook foods; avoid serving raw seafood FOODBORNE ILLNESS CAUSED BY VIRUSES CAUSATIVE AGENT TYPE OF ILLNESS SYMPTOMS ONSET COMMON FOODS PREVENTION HEPATITIS A- Foodborne virus that has been associated with many foodborne infections. It causes a liver disease called infectious hepatitis Viral infection Fever, nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, fatigue, swelling of the liver, jaundice (10-50 days) Foods that are prepared with human contact; contaminated water Wash hands and practice good personal hygiene; avoid raw seafood NORWALK VIRUS- another common foodborne virus that has been associated with many foodborne infections. Viral Infection Vomiting, diarrhea, abdominal pain, headache, low grade fever; onset 24-48 hrs. Sewage contaminated water, contaminated salad ingredient, raw clams, oysters and infected food workers Use potable water; cook all shellfish; handle food properly, meet time, temperature guidelines for PHF ROTAVIRUS- Is a leading cause of severe diarrhea among infants and children Viral infection Diarrhea, vomiting, low grade fever;1-3 days onset; lasts 4-8 days Sewage contaminated water, contaminated salad ingredients, raw seafood Good personal hygiene and handwashing; Propr food handling practices FOODBORNE ILLNESS CAUSED BY PARASITES CAUSATIVE AGENT TYPE OF ILLNESS SYMPTOMS ONSET COMMON FOODS PREVENTION ANISAKIS SPP.- are nematodes(roundworms) associated with foodborne infection from fish. The worms are about1-1/2 inches long and a diameter of a human hair. Thay are beige, ivory, white, gray,brown,or pink. Other names for this parasite are â€Å"cod worm† and â€Å"herring worm† Parasite Infection Coughing, vomiting onset 1hour-2weeks Raw or undercooked seafood; especially bottom feeding fish Cook fish to the proper temperature throughout; freeze to meet FDA Food code specifications CYCLOSPORA CAYETANENSIS- is a parasite that has been reported much more frequently beginning in the 1990’s Parasitic Infection Watery and explosive diarrhea, loss of appetite, bloating (1 week) Water, strawberries, raspberries and raw vegetables Good sanitation, reputable supplier CRYPTOSPORIDIUM PARVUM- Single cell microorganisms called protozoa. Found in water that has been contaminated with cow feces. Parasitic infection Severe watery diarrhea within 1 week of ingestion Contaminated water, food contaminated by infected food workers. Use potable water supply; practice good personal hygiene and handwashing GIARDIA LAMBLIA- Found in the feces of wild animals, domestic pets and infected persons Parasitic infection Diarrhea within 1 week of contact Contaminated water POTABLE WATER SUPPLY; good personal hygiene and handwashing TOXOPLASMA GANDII- Common in warm blooded animals including cats, rats, mice, pigs, cows, sheep, chickens, and birds Parasitic infection Mild cases of the disease involve swollen lymph glands, fever, headache, and muscle aches. Severe cases may result in damage to the eye or brain (10-13days) Raw meats, raw vegetables and fruit Good sanitation, reputable supplier and proper cooking. TRICHINELLA SPIRALIS- roundworm that causes parasitic infection Parasitic infection from a nematode worm  Nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, sweating, muscle soreness (2-28 days) Primarily undercooked pork products and wild game meats( bear, walrus) Cook foods to the proper temperature throughout FOODBORNE ILLNESS CAUSED BY CHEMICALS Chemical hazards are usually classified as either naturally occurring or man-made chemicals. NATURALLY OCCURING CHEMICALS- include toxins that are produced by a biological organism. Allergens Ciguatoxin Mycotoxin Scombrotoxin Shellfish Toxin NATURALLY OCCURING CHEMICALS CAUSATIVE AGENT TYPE OF ILLNESS SYPMTOMS ONSET COMMON FOODS PREVENTION FOOD ALLERGENS- causes a person’s immune system to â€Å"overreact† An allergic reaction usually involving the skin, mouth, digestive tract, or airways Skin- hives, rashes, and itching Mouth- swelling and itching of the lips and tongue Digestive tract- vomiting and diarrhea Airways- difficulty breathing, wheezing Foods that contain: milk, eggs, wheat, nuts, and peanuts, fish and shellfish Packaged and prepared foods must be properly labelled if they contain common food allergens so that sensitive people can avoid it CIGUATOXIN- The toxin is found in tiny, free swimming sea creatures called algae which live among certain coral reefs Fish toxin originating from toxic algae of tropical waters Vertigo, hot/ cold flashes, diarrhea, vomiting (15min- 24 hrs.) Marine finfish including grouper, barracuda, snapper, jack, mackerel, triggerfish, reef fish Purchase fish from a reputable supplier; cooking WILL NOT inactivate the toxin SCOMBROTOXIN- also called histamine poisoning, is caused by eating foods high in a chemical compound called histamine Seafood toxin originating from histamine producing bacteria Dizziness, burning feeling in the mouth, facial rash or hives, peppery taste in mouth, headache, itching, teary eyes, runny nose(1-30min) Tuna, mahi-mahi, bluefish, sardines, mackerel, anchovies, amberjack, abalone Purchase fish from a reputable supplier, store fish at low temperatures to prevent growth of histamine-producing bacteria; toxin is not inactivated by cooking SHELLFISH ROXINS:PSP, DSP, DAP, NSP- The toxins are produced by certain algae called dinoflagellates Intoxication Numbness of lips, tongue, arms, legs, neck; lack of muscle coordination (10-60 min) Contaminated mussels, clams, oysters, scallops Purchase from a reputable supplier MYCOTOXINS- Mycotic organisms or fungi are molds, yeasts, and mushrooms, some of which are capable of causing foodborne illness.Fungi are larger than bacteria. And they prefer foods that are high in sugar or starches Intoxication 1.Acute onset hemorrhage, fluid build up 2. Chronic onset cancer from small doses overtime Moldy grains, corn, corn products, peanuts, pecans, walnuts, and milk Purchase food from a reputable supplier; keep grains and nuts dry; and protect products from humidity ADDED MAN-MADE CHEMICALS MAN-MADE CHEMICALS- include substances that are added, intentionally or accidentally, to a food during processing. Cleaning solutions and sanitary supplies Food additives Pesticides- Leave residues on fruits and vegetables and can usually be removed by a vigorous washing procedure. Chemicals from containers or food-contact surfaces of inferior metal that are misused may lead to heavy-metal or inferior –metal poisoning (cadmium, copper, lead, galvanized metals, etc.) FOODBORNE ILLNESS CAUSED BY PHYSICAL HAZARDS PHYSICAL HAZARDS- Are foreign objects in food that can cause illness and injury Fragments of glasses Metal shavings Unfrilled Toothpicks Human hair And Jewellery Bandages Stones, rocks or wood particles Staple wires

A visit to Ashford hospital Essay Example

A visit to Ashford hospital Essay Example A visit to Ashford hospital Essay A visit to Ashford hospital Essay Essay Topic: The Visit On the 11th March 2002 we visited the Ashford hospital where we were shown the x-ray department and a radiographer who gave us a talk for about an hour and a half. In my report I will include most of the aspects in x-rays and at last two in detail, starting from the basic definition of an x-ray to how and why we use them to the effects of x-rays.First it is important to know what an x-ray is: x-rays are high photon energy (that is to say short-wavelength) electromagnetic radiation. They are used in medicine both for diagnosis (radiography) and for therapy (radiotherapy). It is not possible either to reflect or to refract x-rays and therefore x-rays cannot be focused.There are three types of radiation from radioactive materials: Alpha (?), Beta (?), Gamma (?).The term radiotherapy refers to the treatment of a medical condition (usually cancer) by means of X-ray, Y-rays or beams of energetic electrons. X-ray radiotherapy falls in to two main classes-superficial therapy and megavoltage (or MV) therapy.Superficial therapy is used to treat conditions of the skin and surface tissues. The tube voltages employed are such that the X-rays have low penetrating power and therefore cause littlie damage to the healthy tissue beneath the area being treated.Megavoltage therapy is used to treat the condition inside your body and has almost completely replaced the lower voltage techniques once used for this purpose. The electrons used to create the X-ray are accelerated to the enormous energies required in a linear accelerator (LINAC).Advantages of MV Therapy- It decreases the damage sustained by the patients skin. The beam is so penetrating that hardly any of its energy is absorbed by the skin and surface tissues.- It reduces damage to the bone.Rotating BeamsThe purpose of radiotherapy is to destroy malignant (i.e Cancer) cells whilst doing as little damage as possible to the healthy tissue and bone around them. One way of achieving this is to aim the beam at the tumor from a n umber of different directions, i.e. to rotate it about the tumor. This technique is known as multiple beam or rotating-beam therapy and produces a considerable cumulative effect at the tumor but a much-reduced effect everywhere else.Treatment PlanningAny amount of radiation is potentially harmful to the person being exposed to it and therefore it is important that the following considerations are taken into account.- The likely benefits of exposure to radiation must outweigh the risks involved.- The radiation does must be the minimum consistent with obtaining good quality images or destroying malignant cells.- It must not be possible to obtain equally useful information by less risky methods.- The beam must be collimated so that only part of the body that needs to be exposed is exposed.- Increasing the PD across an X-ray tube increases the penetrating power of the X-rays produced but it decreases the proportion of the beam that is attenuated by photoelectric absorption, and therefor e decreases the contrast of the X-ray image. The PD should be high enough to produce the required degree of penetration but not so that there is insufficient contrast. Another consequence of increasing the tube voltage is that it increases the energy, and therefore the penetrating power, of the scattered radiation. This increases the likelihood of the patient receiving a significant radiation dose in parts of the body some distance away from the part being exposed intentionally. It also increases the chance of scattered radiation escaping from the patient a potential hazard to hospital staff in the vicinity.- The radiographer must employ good techniques so that repeat exposures are not required. (This is an important consideration when assessing just what is the minimum dose an underestimating would necessitate a second exposure and therefore an overall increase in dose.)A metal filament (usually tungsten) is heated and some of the electrons acquire sufficient thermal energy to es cape from the surface. The higher the temperature the filament is heated to, the greater the number of electrons that are in effect boiled off. This filament forms the negative cathode. These electrons are accelerated across an evacuated X-ray tube towards the positive anode by a large voltage that is applied across the tube.These electrons strike the anode where 99 % of their energy is converted to heat with less than 1 % resulting in X-radiation. One theory, which is very important to the theory behind X-ray, is the Band theory.The continuous background (or bremsstrahlung radiation) is produced by electrons colliding with the target and being decelerated. The energy of the emitted X-ray quantum is equal to the energy lost in the deceleration. An electron may lose any fraction of its energy in this process. The most energetic X-rays (ie. Those whose wavelength is ?min). X-rays with longer wavelengths are the result of electrons losing less than their total energy.The line spectrum is the result of electron transitions within the atoms of the target material. The electrons that bombard the target are very energetic (100keV) and are capable of knocking electrons out of deep-lying energy levels of the target atoms. (this corresponds to removing an electron from an inner orbit on the Bohr model). If an outer electron then falls into one of these vacancies, an X-ray photon is emitted. The wavelength of the X-ray is given by E = hc/?, where E is the difference in energy of the levels involved, c is the speed of the light and h is Plancks constant. Since the energy levels are characteristic of the target atoms so too are the wavelengths of the X-rays produced in this way.For example, when calculating the wavelength of the most energetic X-rays produced by a tube operating at 1.0 * 10^? V (h = 6.6 * 10^-34 Js, e =1.6 * 10^-19 C, c =3.0 * 10^8 ms-1.)The most energetic X-ray are those produced by electrons which lose all their kinetic energy on impact.KE on impact = wo rk done by accelerating PD= 1.6 * 10^-19 * 1.0 * 10^5Maximum KE lost = 1.6 * 10^-14 joulesThe energy of the corresponding X-ray quantum is hc/?min and thereforehc/?min = 1.6 * 10^-14i.e. ?min = (6.6 * 10^-34 * 3.0*10^8)/1.6 * 10^-14= 1.24 * 10^-11 mJust clarify:(max. photon energy) Emax = eV and ?min = hc/eV(where V is the Potential difference)Band theoryIn an isolated atom, the energy of an electron depends mainly on its distance from the nucleus. An electron has a negative charge and a nucleus has a positive charge, and as an electron falls towards a nucleus it loses energy. The energy of one electron in an atom is also affected by the presence of all the other electrons within that atom, since they all have negative charge and so repel one another.If atoms are very close together, as in a solid, then the energy of each electron is affected by the nuclei and electrons of many nearby atoms. This has the effect of smearing out the energy levels into broad bands. The electrons are no t longer restricted to certain well-defined energies; instead, there are broad ranges of allowed energy, and higher energy band is shared between atoms. If an electron has enough energy to be in this band, then it can break free of its parent atom and move through the solid, i,e it can take part in conduction, so this upper band is called the conduction band. If, however, an electron is still bound to its parent atom then it cannot be moved around freely and it is said to be in the valence band. Between the two bands is a range of energies known as the forbidden gap. As shown in the diagram below.The size of the forbidden gap determines whether a given material is a conductor or an insulator. In metals, the conduction and valence bands overlap, so the conduction band always contains electrons, and so metals are good conductors. In insulators, the conduction and valence bands are separated by a large forbidden gap, and the conduction band is virtually empty. To promote an electron fr om the valence band would require a large amount of energy. In a semiconductor there is still a gap, but the range of the forbidden gap is much smaller. If the energy supplied by heating or by allowing the material to absorb photons, then some electrons gain enough energy to cross the gap and enter the conduction band. The more energy supplied the more electrons are promoted, the resistance of many semiconductors fall with increasing temperature.The X-rays emitted from an X-ray tube have a range of energies, which is called the X-ray spectrum. These X-rays are produced by two different mechanisms, which are distinctive in the resulting spectrum.Continuous spectrum (approx 80% of the output)The electrons pass close to the positive nuclei of the target atoms and are slowed down. he kinetic energy that they lose is converted into photons of electromagnetic radiation which have a continuous range of energies up to a maximum value equal to the tube voltage applied.Continuous spectrum A continuous range of photon energies (up to a maximum) is produced as electrons are decelerated in the target.Characteristic spectrumSome of the electrons penetrate deep into the target atoms, ejecting orbital electrons from the innermost shells near the nuclei. Orbiting electrons from outer orbits fill gaps in the inner shells and emit photons that are characteristic of the target atom. As long as the target has a high enough atomic number, the resulting photon will be the X-ray range.Tungsten is used as the target material for nearly all X-rays tubes because it has a high atomic number and so yields high X-ray outputs and a high melting point to withstand the large amount of heat produced. The characteristic K line spectrum produced bt Rungsten is about 709 keV, which is a tube voltage used for many exposures.Line SpectrumA limited of precise characteristic photon energies is generated through electron transitions to the K and L shells.Focal Spot sizeIdeally the X-rays produced wo uld originate from a point source, which would result in a clear shadow being formed with sharp edges (like a light image formed in a pin hole camera). This is not practical because of the great amount of heat being produced by the X-ray tube. If all the electrons were directed at one tiny point, the target would melt. The target is therefore designed to increase the actual target focal spot while keeping the projected focal spot as small as possible, thus keeping the amount of geometric blur to a minimum. This is achieved by using a disc shaped anode with the target area shapely angled and spinning throughout the exposure.Positioning the film as close as possible to the patient also reduces geometric blur.So how do we select exposure?To see why different exposures are selected for different areas, the methods by which an X-ray beam is attenuated must be studied.Simple scatterThe incident photon energy does not have sufficient energy to remove an electron from its atom so it is simp ly deflected from its course without loss of energy. This scatter is proportional to the square of the atomic number.Photoelectric EffectThe incident photon gives up all of its energy to an inner orbital electron, ejecting the electron from its atom. Some of the energy of the electron is used in overcoming the binding energy of the electron. The vacancy in the shell will be filled by electrons in orbital further from the nucleus, producing characteristic radiation, which in the case of the X-ray photons interacting with the body tissue are small and in the infer-red part of the EM spectrum. Photoelectric attenuation is most useful to diagnostic imaging because the photoelectric absorption is proportional to the cube of the atomic number.Compton scatterThe energy of the photon is much greater than the binding energy of the electron. Only part of its energy is given during the interaction with the outer electron. The photon continues in a different direction with reduced energy and th e electron dissipates its energy through ionization. It is independent of the atomic number.Simple is a problem as it reduces image sharpness and increases low-energy absorption in the patients skin. Photoelectric absorption is useful because, as it is proportional to the cube of the atomic number of the absorbing material, it produces contrast on the image. Material of high atomic number absorb more X-rays by this method and those of low atomic number absorb less. As the tube voltage is increased photoelectric attenuation tends to fall and Compton scatter to rise in importance, and as Compton scatter is not proportional to the atomic number of the absorbing material, the contrast is reduced.How do we reduce scatter?- Reduce the beam size by using an adjustable diaphragm, this reduces the field size and thus reduces the random scatter produced.- Use filtration on the X-ray beam to reduce the lower energy photons that result in simple scatter, allowing photoelectric attenuation to do minate.- Use of compression to make the part X-rayed thinner.So what is the radiographer doing?When taking a simple X-ray, the radiographer must:- Choose the tube voltage- this is usually in the range 60-120kVMore kV increases maximum photon energyIncreases average photon energyIncreases total intensityEffect of changing tube voltage on resulting X-ray spectrum.* Choose the tube current this depends on the number of electrons crossing the tube per second. This is controlled by the filament current, which determines the rate at which electrons are emitted from the cathode.Increasing tube current increases the overall intensity but does not increase the maximum photon energy or change the shape of the spectrum.Increases the blackening of the filmIncreases the absorbed dose by the patient.Increases the heating of the target.Effect of the tube current on X-ray spectrum* Choose the expose timeIncreasing the exposure timeIncreases the blackening of the filmIncreases the patient absorbed doseIncreases the chances of movement blur* Choose the focal spot sizeIncreasing the focal spot size increases the tube current and the voltage that can be applied but reduces geometric unsharpness.How do we stop scatter from getting to the film?We use a grid formed by rows of lead strips stops the scattered radiation from reaching the film. To get rid of the grid lines on the image, the grid may be moved during the exposure.We can also use an air gap to reduce the scatter reaching the film.And what about the film?If we were just to use film just to record the X-ray that were transmitted through the patient we would have to use very large exposures because up to 97% of X-rays pass straight through the film without affecting it at all. We therefore use special cassettes that contain fluorescent screens. These fluorescent screens absorb the X-radiation and re-emit visible radiation in a pattern that is the same as that of the original X-ray beam.Construction of the Rotating Anode Tube InsertFluoroscopy:In X-ray fluoroscopy, X-rays are passed through the patient and onto a fluorescent screen to produce an immediate visible image. This has the advantage over photographic film in that it allows dynamic processes. Sadly, unacceptably high X-ray intensities would be needed to produce image that could be viewed directly. A device known as an image intensifier can increase the brightness by a factor of over a thousand and allows the radiation dose to be cut by up to 90% of the unintensified level. The intensifier has a fluorescent screen in contact with a photocathode. This combination converts the X-rays first to visible photons and then to electrons. The number of electrons at any point on the photocathode is directly proportional to the X-ray intensity transmitted by the patient.The electrons produced by the cathode are then accelerated through a potential difference of about 20 kV, using a series of focusing anodes, towards a second fluorescent screen. The increase d energy and concentration of the electrons creates an image that is very brighter than that on the first screen, and which is usually picked up by a TV camera and fed to a TV monitor or video recorder.Fluoroscopy is a technique that is used sparingly, for despite image intensification, the radiation dose to the patient is still significantly higher than that I a standard radiographic examination. Dose savings can be made by using short bursts of X-rays rather than a truly continuous exposure, but even so the examinations remain relatively dose-intensive.Bibliography:For my report the sources which I used were; the textbook Physics A-level by Roger Muncaster, also the textbook Salters Horners Advanced Physics, a leaflet given to me by the Ashford hospital and finally my own knowledge.Conclusion:You can obviously tell that the visit to the hospital was very informative and helpful. Funnily enough at the time I was writing this report I had broken my wrist and was treated at the Ealin g hospital. On my last visit, to take the full plaster cast off I asked the radiographer if she could give me copy of my wrist, but unfortunately she said that it had to go in report. Instead she let me get my hands on some unwanted X-rays, which was the next best thing, so included them in my report.